The Mediating Effect of Cognitive and Emotional Satisfaction on Customer Loyalty Essay Example

The Mediating Effect of Cognitive and Emotional Satisfaction on Customer Loyalty Essay International Journal of Management Innovation Systems ISSN 1943-1384 2009, Vol. 1, No. 2: E5 The Mediating Effect of Cognitive and Emotional Satisfaction on Customer Loyalty Maznah Wan Omar Universiti Teknologi MARA Kedah Peti Surat 187, 08400 Merbok, Kedah, Malaysia [emailprotected] uitm. edu. my ABSTRACT Loyal customers are among the greatest revenue producer and are more likely to occur in a form of word-of-mouth. In the compound and vibrant Malaysian home computer retail market today, customer loyalty through word-of-mouth marketing tends to occur very slowly and is limited geographically but is a very potent method of marketing. The influence of cognitive and emotional satisfaction on the relationship between salesperson presentation skills and customer’s loyalty through intention to promote by word-of-mouth is vital. This will then lead to increased benefits for the organization in the form of customer loyalty. The cognitive evaluation of customer satisfaction was found to explain customer loyalty in a retail setting more than the emotional reaction. This finding holds importance to those retailers who have been able to generate high expectations in the eyes of their customers. Keywords: Adaptive selling skills, sales presentation skills, Customer satisfaction, Customer loyalty INTRODUCTION As competition deepens, products and services become more indistinguishable, and markets become established, it is becoming increasingly tougher for companies in retailing industries to distinguish themselves from other stores. Simply offering customers with technical solutions to problems does not be sufficient anymore to be competitive and obtain and retain market share. Various value-added services, which commence before the actual operation begins, had gone far beyond it, so as to stay competitive and develop customer loyalty. Research and business customs have shown that upholding customers through value-added services costs less than obtaining new ones (Wetzels et al. , 1998). A prevailing belief holds that an essential key to performance rests with the ability to sustain 1 www. macrothink. org/ijmis International Journal of Management Innovation Systems ISSN 1943-1384 2009, Vol. 1, No. 2: E5 ustomer relationships (Anderson et al. , 1994). Correspondingly, as relational value continues beyond price, customer bond are particularly effective when involved in long-term relationships (Wood, 1995). LITERATURE REVIEW Salesperson Behavior Performance In recent years, a number of authors have been confronted with this issue of the changing role of the sales force. Up-and-coming trends of the extent and scope recorded above require a re-evaluation of the activities that salespeople must execute in order to successfully build and manage customer loyalty. We will write a custom essay sample on The Mediating Effect of Cognitive and Emotional Satisfaction on Customer Loyalty specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on The Mediating Effect of Cognitive and Emotional Satisfaction on Customer Loyalty specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on The Mediating Effect of Cognitive and Emotional Satisfaction on Customer Loyalty specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer Marshall et al. , (1999), interviewed a diversity of professional salespeople to give evidence for 49 new sales activities that were not pointed out in Moncrief’s (1986) original list. These latest activities fall into the following main categories: communication technology, selling technology, activities related to adaptive and consultative selling, and team-oriented activities. Many of the specific activities within these categories involve skills and content knowledge dissimilar from those traditionally observed in the past as key salesperson success factors. This study therefore will consider how cognitive and emotional satisfaction mediates the relationship between salesperson presentation skills and customer’s intention to word-of-mouth. These situational factors have not been considered in prior research and provide new avenues for examining salesperson presentation skills in Malaysian market and its consequences. Additionally, as most studies have considered salespeople as their unit of analysis, this study will add to the small but imminent body of research that investigates performance and effectiveness relationships at the customer’s level. Formation of loyalty through satisfaction It is by and large believed that satisfaction leads to repeat purchase and positive word-of-mouth recommendation, which are the main indicators of loyalty. Marketing literature has paid much attention to the relationship between customer satisfaction and loyalty (Chi, 2005). A number of studies have confirmed a significant positive relationship between customer satisfaction and loyalty/retention (Chi, 2005). If consumers are satisfied with the product or service, they are more likely to carry on purchasing, and are more willing to spread positive WOM. Salesperson presentation skills Churchill et al. , (1997, p. 367) define selling skill as a salesperson’s â€Å"learned proficiencies at performing job activities,† and describe Salesperson presentation skills as the skills that are associated to successfully conducting the personal selling process (i. e. the series of interconnected steps that salespeople generally use to link with the influence customer). 2 www. macrothink. org/ijmis International Journal of Management Innovation Systems ISSN 1943-1384 2009, Vol. , No. 2: E5 Recognizing the importance of salesperson presentation skills, Marshall et al. (2003) gathered and ranked sales manager perceptions of â€Å"success factors† that contribute to salesperson job performance. They report that managers feel that six specific salesperson presentation skills: listening, adaptive selling, handling objections, closing, negotiating, and prospecting (in descending order of perceived importance) are highly important t o salesperson performance (Johlke, 2006). Accordingly, this group of salesperson presentation skills will be used at the heart of the hypothesized model. Customer satisfaction The importance of customer satisfaction to the success of consumer goods manufacturers (Burns Neisner, 2006) and to the success of retailers (Darian et al. , 2001) has been well documented. Customer satisfaction is regarded as a primary determining factor of repeat shopping and purchasing behavior. The greater the degree to which a consumer experiences satisfaction with a retailer, for instance, the greater the probability the consumer will revisit the retailer (Burns Neisner, 2006, p. 49; Wong Sohal, 2003). In summary, we note the distinction between transaction-specific and overall satisfaction, and for this study, we adopt the broader definition of satisfaction whereby the overall measure is an aggregation of all previous transaction-specific satisfaction, and involves both cognitive and affective components. Recently, the overall measure has been shown to be a better predictor of repurchase intentions (Jones Suh, 2000). Research Framework and Hypotheses Based on the review of literatures concerning the study variables on salesperson presentation skills, customer satisfaction, and customer’s intention to word-of-mouth, the theoretical framework for this study was developed based on Oliver’s (1997, p. 392) Cognitive-Affective-Conative Behavior pattern model. This research model has been adapted and used in this study. Relationship between Salesperson presentation skill and Intention to WOM Although a customer’s personality and the employee’s customer orientation were considered an important antecedent to relationship strength, salesperson presentation skill rather than his/her personality would perform a greater part in determining relationship strength (Foster Cadogen, 2000). Salespersons are social actors who learn behaviors that are appropriate to the positions they take up (Bove Johnson, 2000). In other words, salesperson can be motivated to adapt their behavior to situational requirements in spite of personal preferences (Bove Johnson, 2000). To date, there is a lack of studies investigating the numerous aspects of service that are imperative to customer retention (Zeithaml, 2000)? Furthermore, the different outcomes (i. e. 3 www. macrothink. org/ijmis International Journal of Management Innovation Systems ISSN 1943-1384 2009, Vol. 1, No. 2: E5 attitudinal and behavioral) of relationship strength are left predominantly unexplored in the relationship marketing literature. In addition, there is a lack of studies that explore the impact of factors such as salesperson presentation skill on customer’s intention to WOM. Conclusively, there is little empirical work investigating customer relationship economies, which is the link between attitudinal measures (i. e. salesperson presentation skill, customer satisfaction) and behavioral measures (i. e. customer loyalty, intention to repurchase, intention to WOM, and long-term customer relationship profitability), Wong and Sohal, (2006). Therefore, in line with the above reasoning’s and findings, it is conjectured that: H1: There is a direct positive relationship between salesperson’s presentation skills and intention to word-of-mouth (WOM). Relationship between Customer satisfaction and customer’s intention to WOM Customer satisfaction is important to marketers because it is usually assumed to be a significant determinant of recurring sales, positive word-of-mouth, intention to repurchase, and customer loyalty. It is worthy to consumers because it reflects a positive outcome following the outlay of limited resources and/or the positive accomplishment of prior needs. As a consequence, maximizing satisfaction is seen as a significant objective, collectively for both the firm and the consumer (Mouri, 2005). Likewise, theory suggests that satisfaction feeds back into the system to influence ensuing intentions and behaviors (Wallace et al. , 2004). Customer’s satisfaction with the shopping experience should reflect well on the retailer. An increase in satisfaction has been shown to result in increased customer loyalty (Donio et al. , 2006). From the above arguments it is hypothesized that: H2: There is a direct positive relationship between customer satisfaction and intention to word-of-mouth. H2a: There is a direct positive relationship between cognitive satisfaction and intention to word-of-mouth. H2b: There is a direct positive relationship between emotional satisfaction and intention to word-of-mouth. The mediating effect of Customer Satisfaction on Salesperson presentation skill and Customer’s intention to WOM relationship. Overall satisfaction with an experience does lead to customer loyalty (Caruana, 2002). Bearden and Teel (1983) argue that customer satisfaction is imperative to the marketer because â€Å"it is generally assumed to be significant determinant of repeat sales, positive word of mouth, intention to repurchase, and consumer loyalty†. Similarly, Bloemer and Poiesz (1989) have also argued that â€Å"satisfaction can be thought of as an important determinant of customer loyalty†, while Selnes (1993) argues that it is satisfaction with a brand or service that leads to 4 www. macrothink. org/ijmis International Journal of Management Innovation Systems ISSN 1943-1384 2009, Vol. 1, No. 2: E5 customer loyalty. This view is also supported by Dick and Basu (1994). LaBarbera and Mazursky (1983) show empirically that brand and service loyal customers had a lower probability to substitute brands or service due to higher levels of satisfaction. On the basis of the above findings, customer satisfaction is indicated as having a function and acting as a mediator in the link between salesperson presentation skills and customer loyalty (Lim, 2004). Therefore, in line with the above reasoning’s and findings, the following were hypothesized: H3: Customer satisfaction mediates the relationship presentation skills and intention to word-of-mouth. H3a: between salesperson Cognitive satisfaction mediates the relationship between salesperson presentation skills and intention to word-of-mouth. H3b: Emotional satisfaction mediates the relationship between salesperson presentation skills and intention to word-of-mouth. METHODOLOGY Sampling Design To have a representative finding, the sampling technique used must be objective. This is an important effort adopted by most researchers in order to furnish a finding pertinent to the general. To choose the sample for this study, probability random sampling was used. A probability sample is necessary if the sample is to be representative of the population (Reeves, 1992). Therefore, a two-stage systematic sampling technique is employed in this study. Population and sample size In determining the sample size for this study, sample size selected was based on the criteria set according to Sawyer and Ball (1981). According to Sawyer and Ball (1981), it is estimated that a proportion of 13% of the explained variance to effect size values is a medium effect size for regression analysis. One common measure of effect size is eta squared. Eta squared represents the proportion of variance of the dependent variable that is explained by the independent variable (Pallant, 2005). According to Cohen (1988), the strength of the effect size are interpreted as follows; 0. 01 = small effect size, 0. 06 = moderate effect size, and 0. 14 = large effect size. Thus five independent variables were used and using the statistical significance of 0. 05 (95% confidence level) and an effect size values of . 13 is found to be truly sufficient and not by chance. Goodness of Measure In determining the goodness of data for the study, factor analysis and reliability analysis were performed. Factor analysis was used to assess the convergent validity of the items used in the 5 www. macrothink. org/ijmis International Journal of Management Innovation Systems ISSN 1943-1384 2009, Vol. 1, No. 2: E5 questionnaire while Cronbach’s alpha was performed to examine the internal consistency of the factors obtained. The result of the reliability test are presented in Table 1 Table 1. Reliability Coefficients for the Variables in the Study Construct/Variables Number of Items 3 Cronbach’s Alpha . 75 Mean Std. Dev Sales Presentation skill/Knowledge 3. 78 0. 72 Customer satisfaction Emotional Satisfaction 4 . 84 4. 10 0. 64 Cognitive Satisfaction 4 . 76 3. 85 0. 58 Customer loyalty Word-of-mouth (WOM) 2 . 69 3. 93 0. 59 Note: All items used a 5-point Likert scale (1 = strongly disagree and 5 = strongly agree) The result of the reliability analysis sum up in Table 1 confirmed that all the scales shown, reveal a high internal consistency and reliability with Cronbach’s alpha values higher than the minimum perimeter, (Cronbach’s alpha gt; 0. 60). Research Findings and Discussion Hypotheses Testing Multiple regression tests were conducted in order to test the relationship between the predictor variable and the criterion variable. Respondents’ demographic variables such as salesperson are younger or older than the customers, gender, and ethnicity were statistically controlled (Connel et al. , 2003; Hemdi, 2006). Hence, these variables were entered into the regression equation in the first step. The predictor variables were entered in the second step. The following Table’s below summarizes the result of the analyses. Regression Analysis with Control Variables The relationship word-of-mouth between salesperson presentation skills and intention to Table 2. Results of hierarchical regression analysis of salesperson presentation skills on intention to word-of-mouth Predictors Step 1: Control Variables Younger or older Gender Ethnicity 6 Model 1 Std. ? -. 05 -. 01 . 09 Model 2 Std. ? . 01 -. 01 -. 02 www. macrothink. org/ijmis International Journal of Management Innovation Systems ISSN 1943-1384 2009, Vol. 1, No. 2: E5 Step 2: Sales presentation skills R? Adj. R? R? Change F-Change Note. Significant levels: *p

Geography of River Deltas - Formation and Importance

Geography of River Deltas - Formation and Importance A river delta is a low-lying plain or landform that occurs at the mouth of a river near where it flows into an ocean or another larger body of water. Deltas greatest importance to human activities, fish and wildlife lay in their characteristic highly fertile soil and dense, diverse vegetation. In order to fully appreciate the role deltas play in our larger ecosystem, it is first important to understand rivers. Rivers are defined as bodies of fresh water generally flowing from high elevations toward an ocean, a lake or another river; sometimes, even back into the ground. Most rivers begin at high elevations where snow, rain, and other precipitation run downhill into creeks and small streams. These small waterways flow ever farther downhill, eventually meeting to form rivers. Rivers flow toward oceans or other larger bodies of water, oftentimes combining with other rivers. Deltas exist as the lowest part of these rivers. It is in these deltas where a rivers flow slows and spreads out to create sediment-rich dry areas and biodiverse wetlands. Formation of River Deltas The formation of a river delta is a slow process. As rivers flow toward their outlets from higher elevations, they deposit mud, silt, sand, and gravel particles at the mouths where rivers and larger, more sedentary bodies of water meet. Over time these particles (called sediment or alluvium) build up at the mouth, extending into the ocean or lake. As these areas continue to grow the water becomes shallower and eventually, landforms begin to rise above the surface of the water, typically elevating to just above sea level. As rivers drop enough sediment to create these landforms or areas of raised elevation, the remaining flowing water with the most power sometimes cuts across the land, forming different branches called distributaries. Once formed, deltas are typically made up of three parts: the upper delta plain, the lower delta plain, and the subaqueous delta. The upper delta plain makes up the area nearest to land. It is usually the area with the least water and highest elevation. The lower delta plain is the middle of the delta. It is a transition zone between the dry upper delta and the wet subaqueous delta. The subaqueous delta is the portion of the delta closest to the sea or body of water into which the river flows. This area is usually past the shoreline and it is below water level. Types of River Deltas Despite the generally universal processes by which river deltas are formed and organized, it is important to note that the worlds deltas vary dramatically in structure, composition, and size due to factors such as origin, climate, geology, and tidal processes. These external factors contribute to an impressive diversity of deltas around the world. A deltas characteristics are classified based upon the specific factors contributing to its rivers deposition of sediment typically the river itself, waves or tides. The main types of deltas are wave-dominated deltas, tide-dominated deltas, Gilbert deltas, inland deltas, and estuaries. As its name would imply, a wave-dominated delta such as the Mississippi River Delta is created by wave erosion controlling where and how much river sediment remains in a delta once it has been dropped. These deltas are usually shaped like the Greek symbol, delta (∆). Tide-dominated deltas such as the Ganges River Delta are formed by tides. Such deltas are characterized by a dendritic structure (branched, like a tree) due to newly-formed distributaries during times of high water. Gilbert deltas are steeper and formed by deposition of coarse material. While it is possible for them to form in ocean areas, their formations are more commonly seen in mountainous areas where mountain rivers deposit sediment into lakes. Inland deltas are deltas formed in inland areas or valleys where rivers may divide into many branches and rejoin farther downstream. Inland deltas, also called inverted river deltas, normally form on former lake beds. Finally, when a river is located near coasts characterized by large tidal variations, they do not always form a traditional delta. Tidal variation often results in estuaries  or a river that meets the sea, such as Saint Lawrence River in Ontario, Quebec, and New York. Humans and River Deltas River deltas have been important to humans for thousands of years because of their extremely fertile soils. Major ancient civilizations grew along deltas such as those of the Nile and the Tigris-Euphrates rivers, with the inhabitants of these civilizations learning how to live with their natural flooding cycles. Many people believe that the ancient Greek historian Herodotus first coined the term delta nearly 2,500 years ago as many deltas are shaped like the Greek delta (∆) symbol. Deltas remain important to humans even today as, among many other things, a source of sand and gravel. Used in highway, building and infrastructure construction, these highly valuable materials quite literally build our world. Delta land is also important in agricultural use. Witness the Sacramento-San Joaquin Delta in California. One of the most agriculturally diverse and productive areas in the state, the region successfully supports numerous crops from kiwi to alfalfa to tangerines. Biodiversity and Importance of River Deltas In addition to (or perhaps in defiance of) these human uses, river deltas boast some of the most biodiverse systems on the planet. As such, it is essential that these unique and beautiful havens of biodiversity remain as healthy habitat for the many species of plants, animals, insects, and fish some rare, threatened or endangered which call them home. In addition to their biodiversity, deltas and wetlands provide a buffer for hurricanes, as open land often stands to weaken the impact of storms as they travel toward larger, more populated areas. The Mississippi River Delta, for example, buffers the impact of potentially strong hurricanes in the Gulf of Mexico.

How to Give an Impromptu Speech (Public Speaking)

How to Give an Impromptu Speech (Public Speaking) An impromptu speech is a speech that you have to make without much or any time to prepare. In life, this can happen when you attend special events, like weddings or celebrations. In school, teachers use impromptu speeches as  homework assignments to help you develop communication skills and to help you prepare for those future life surprises. While this may seem like a cruel trick from a students point of view, it actually builds confidence and is great preparation for life. Rarely will you be asked to stand and deliver a speech with no warning and no time to organize your thoughts. This would be unusual in the classroom unless the teacher is attempting to make a point about the importance of preparedness. At some point in your life, however, you may be asked to speak without notice. There are a few things you can do to avoid panic and embarrassment. Grab a pen and a piece of paper. If you have a few moments before your speech is expected to begin, grab a writing utensil and something to write on, whether its a napkin, envelope, or the back of a receipt you have on hand, and jot down a few thoughts.Highlight a few interesting or significant points.  Keep in mind, your impromptu speech doesnt have to be long. A little-known fact about effective speeches is that if you start with a good line and then end with a really great punch, the speech will  be perceived as a total success. So the beginning and ending markers are critical. The middle portion of your speech should relate to the event youre attending or the class assignment, but if you have to choose one great moment, your ending line is particularly important. If you can walk away gracefully, your speech will be a hit, so keep your big zinger for last.Try to memorize key points. If you have time before your speech, create an outline of the major themes or points and commit it to memory with a memorization trick, like an acronym. Dont try to remember the entire speech in detail like this; just remember important points. Hijack the topic.  There is an old trick that politicians use when theyre being interviewed on TV, and once you realize this, you can use it yourself. They think of questions ahead of time (or topics to discuss), prepare some talking points,  and talk about those, despite the topic or question theyre given. This is a handy trick when youre facing a hard question or asked to discuss a topic with which youre unfamiliar.Remember youre in charge of this time.  Your goal is to deliver a one-sided conversation, off the cuff, so you are in complete control. Relax and make it your own. If you want to make this a funny story about your pesky little brother who always bothers you during homework time, then do it. Everyone will applaud your effort.Feel free to acknowledge that you have not prepared for a speech. If you are speaking in front of friends or family, it may ease your nervousness to express your lack of preparation. This should not be an attempt to garner pity, but rather a way to put yourself and your audience at ease. Then, take a deep breath before you begin speaking. Zone out the audience or choose someone specific to focus on, whichever makes you more comfortable. Begin with your introductory sentence, elaborate, then start working your way to your ending sentence.  Fill in the middle space with as many points as you can, elaborating on each one as you go. Just concentrate on the zinger youve reserved for the end.As you deliver your speech, concentrate on diction and tone.  If you are thinking about this, you wont be thinking about the eyes watching you. Your mind cant think about too many things at once, so think about breathing, enunciating your words, and controlling your tone, and youll maintain more control. What to Do If You Draw a Blank If you suddenly lose your train of thought or draw a complete blank, there are a few you can do to keep from panicking. Pretend youre pausing on purpose. Walk back and forth slowly, as if youre letting your last point sink in.There is always a jokester or friendly person who will stand out in the crowd. Make eye contact and try to draw a response from him or her while you think.If you need more time to think, you may want to ask the audience a question. Have a few prepared ahead, like Do you have any questions, or Can everyone hear me okay?If you still cant remember what you were going to say, make up a reason to pause the speech. You can say, Im sorry, but my throat is very dry. Can I please get a glass of water? Someone will go to get you a drink, and you will have time to think of two or three points to talk about. If these tricks dont appeal to you, think of your own. The goal is to have something ready for every possible scenario ahead of time. If you know you may be asked to give an impromptu speech soon, try going through the entire preparation process with a few common speech topics. When caught off guard, many people can suffer extreme anxiety about speaking off the cuff. Thats why the best speakers are always prepared.

Air Transport in the UK Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Air Transport in the UK - Essay Example According to the report  there are two key drivers of air transport demand in the UK economy. One is growth in income in the long-term and the other one is fall in the real cost of fares of air transport. With the decline in air fares and rise in income, the passengers are expected to increase their air travel. However, with fall in the air fares, the airlines are unable to cut down operational costs and due to this, the sector has to meet increasing cost for emission of fuels. The figure below shows the key factors of air transport demand in the UK.This research highlights that  income elasticity of demand in economics is used to measure the responsiveness of quantity demanded of a good with respect to the income change of the individual demanding the good, holding all other things constant. Mathematically, it is calculated by taking the ratio of change in the percentage of quantity demanded to the change in percentage of income.  Income elasticity of a good which is greater t han 1 (luxury good) is considered to be highly elastic. The good whose elasticity lies in the range of 0 to 1 (normal or necessary good) is considered to be elastic and the one with elasticity less than 0 (inferior good) has negative elasticity. Also, goods having income elasticity equal to 1 is unit elastic. The figure below shows different types of elasticity.  Therefore, income elasticity differs with the nature of goods. The demand for inferior good is negative, less elastic for normal good and that for luxury good, it is highly elastic.

Paper 2 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words - 12

Paper 2 - Essay Example Therefore Ii is apparent that the difference between compatibilism and hard determinism is that in hard determinism, the unexpected chains are made up wholly of mechanistic cause, blind, non-rational and effect but in compatibilism there is a rational element to the unexpected chain which includes a person’s own motives, dispositions, goals and desires. Harry Frankfurt the author to the book â€Å"freedom of will and concept of a person† tries to show how we can still be free even though we do not have the ability to choose or do otherwise (Lemos 13-5). As a philosopher he thinks that a person is not made up by just a specific species with a genetic code but rather by a complex system of desires and wills. Men for instance, are capable of wanting to be different in their desires and purposes from they are, by wanting and choosing from this or that. He brought up the concept by giving out examples that came out philosophically. According to him, there are two types of motives and desires. The ‘first order’ desires and the ‘second order’ desires. The first order desires are the ones that both persons and non-persons may use. An example would be a Cat wanting to eat food from a dish. This desire for the food is not challenged by the cat so the decision is proceeded on instantly. If there was an applica tion of the second order desire, the cat might have been reading an article and observed other skinner cats getting all the handsome cats to mate with her forcing this cat to question its eating habits. The questioning of a desire is what is referred to as the second order desire which is classified as ‘self-selection’. According to Frankfurt, only man has this capability but it has been discovered that some animals have this capability as well. From his own theory concept, he says that being free is a matter of doing what one is desired to do which is not an adequate condition of having

Developing the Literate Child

Developing the Literate Child Introduction ‘Early-years educators relate what is being taught to what children  already know. In order to extend each child’s learning they support  and guide children through each new stage of learning. They know  that the abilities and attitudes that young children develop in the  early years are an important part of a life-long journey during which  children will need to acquire all the language skills necessary to  interpret, manipulate, control and organize language for their own  present and future purposes.’ (Browne 1996, vii) The above quote neatly summarises the need to ensure that young children’s language development is fostered in the best possible way by educators. What children learn now can have a life-long impact upon how they interact with the world in future. It is the child’s teacher, who has the capacity to greatly influence how a child acquires and uses language, to assess what the child already knows, and to use this knowledge to foster and guide the child through, ‘each new stage of learning,’ (Browne 1996, vii). It was with this clear intention in mind, with which the following study was undertaken. The aim, to assess one child’s current speaking and listening, reading and writing skills, to analyse any observations carefully, and to use the information gathered as a basis for planning the child’s future learning needs. The child chosen, a female, was aged 5 years and 9 months at the time of the study and does not have any recognised special educati onal needs. She will, henceforth, be referred to as, ‘Child A,’ for the remainder of the report. Reading Analysis Listening to Child A read on a one-to-one basis was extremely informative. She is starting to use some expression in her voice, and is attempting to make the text sound more like natural language, however, she has little sense of phrase boundaries, and consequently, can often sound stilted. She regularly has to decode words on a word-by-word basis, but is not always successful in her attempts, meaning that the language does not flow. There were frequent extended pauses during the reading of each sentence. On a number of occasions Child A was unable to decode a word but had a limited number of alternative strategies available to her, in order to help her to continue reading. The miscue analyses showed that Child A’s average negative miscue rate was 8.06% for the books chosen from her particular reading ‘stage’. It is recommended that when matching a book to a reader the negative miscue rate should lie somewhere between 3% and 8%, with a miscue rate of 10% representing frustration level, (Moon et al. 1994, 116).This evidence may suggest that the text was too difficult for Child A, resulting in a negative effect on her confidence and interest. Graham and Kelly propound that, ‘Surprising insights into children’s reading can emerge in the one-to-one conversations which you have with them,’ (Graham and Kelly 1997, 115). I talked at length with Child A and we discussed her reading habits and attitudes towards books. It quickly became obvious that Child A loves books in many forms. She confided that she often imagines that she is the princess in the stories which are read to her. Child A likes to look at the pictures in books and tell her own stories from these, but feels unable to read the words alone. It became clear that Child A has access to many books at home, and Mum and Dad evidently read a lot. She delighted in recounting her first experience of visiting a library, which occurred recently, and she was given ample time to choose a book to take home. Child A proudly confided that she knew the book by heart as she had read it that often. It was evident that Child A, not only enjoys reading, but also see s herself as a good reader. Observation of Child A during several guided reading sessions with her class teacher, presented a different picture. Child A frequently became easily distracted, and failed to focus on the text which was in front of her. She appeared to be restless and anxious to move off onto different activities. Child A was confident when attempting to read a word she thought she knew, however, when she came across an unfamiliar word she would not attempt to read it. With prompting she would begin to ‘sound’ a word out, but often gave up before completing the word. Again, Child A seems over reliant on picture cues and was attempting to tell the story from the pictures. She remained unfocused throughout each guided reading session and while other children were turning the pages of their books, Child A sat with her book shut. She was unable to participate in the group discussion concerning the book and was unable to relate the main points of the story to the teacher when asked. Child A was also observed during shared whole-class reading sessions. While she did not openly volunteer answers to the questions asked, she did respond once the class teacher asked her a direct question. In consideration of the above evidence, and in conjunction with the level descriptors provided by the National Curriculum (www.nc.uk.net), it is possible to suggest that Child A is working at Level One in terms of her reading: ‘Pupils recognise familiar words in simple texts. They use their  knowledge of letters and sound-symbol relationships in order to  read words and to establish meaning when reading aloud. In these   activities they sometimes require support. They express their   response to poems, stories and non-fiction by identifying aspects   they like.’ (www.nc.uk.net) However, it is clear that Child A meets only part of this level descriptor, as she is not yet using her phonic knowledge to read words, and to use the words to comprehend the story. Implications for Teaching and Learning: Reading It is clear from the evidence given above that Child A is not a confident of fluent reader. She is working in the early stages of National Curriculum level 1, and will need specific support if she is to begin to work in the later stages of the level, and indeed to start to work towards National Curriculum level 2. The problems with Child A’s use of expression and lack of awareness of phrase boundaries, could perhaps be addressed by adults modelling the reading process. Graham and Kelly suggest that this is a viable way of first introducing a book to a child, before they are given the opportunity to read the book for themselves, (Graham and Kelly 1997, 105). This could give Child A the confidence she needs and will expose her to the way books should be read, using lots of expression. It will also aid her awareness of phrase boundaries, particularly if the adult traces the text with their finger as they read and makes exaggerated pauses when full stops or commas are encountered. Child A’s reluctance to join in group and class discussion about books could be a result of a lack of confidence in her own abilities, or perhaps she is unsure of how to respond correctly and does not want to ‘risk,’ getting it wrong. Again, one-one-one reading sessions could be an ideal way to address this problem. Graham and Kelly (1997) suggest that there should be a specific pattern to one-on-one reading sessions with young children, this pattern consists of five separate steps. ‘Warming up the text,’ allows children to look at the book chosen with an adult, handling it and making links with their own experiences, making them feel more comfortable before they begin reading (Graham and Kelly 1997, 105). ‘Reviewing the book,’ is also an important part of the confidence building process, and would allow Child A to give her opinion on the book without fear of failure, (Graham and Kelly 1997, 106). These strategies will hopefully help to b uild Child A’s self confidence and she should then eventually be able to give her opinions in shared and guided reading sessions. The miscue analyses also indicated that the books from Child A’s ‘shelf,’ were perhaps too difficult for her, resulting in boredom and frustration, this could also have been the case during the guided reading sessions. Child A should be given books from a ‘lower shelf,’ to read in order to build up her self confidence. In addition to this, being placed with children of a similar, or slightly lower, ability for guided reading sessions could also have a positive impact. Speaking and Listening Analysis During whole-class, teacher-led activities Child A did not speak unless she was asked a direct question by the class teacher. On such occasions, Child A would sometimes respond accurately, at other times she would not respond at all. When the children were asked to respond to questions by raising their hands, Child A would not put up her hand. During such teaching sessions, Child A was often observed to be very restless, although she was keen to sit right at the front. The children were regularly asked to work with ‘talking partners,’ during the direct teaching, it was observed that Child A never responded to her partner in such situations, simply refusing to speak. During independent activities, Child A was observed to ignore other children on her table. Often her peers attempted to draw her into their activity or conversation, however, she did not respond to them in anyway, and indeed seemed to ignore them. Child A was also observed during ‘free-play,’ situations. Generally Child A would remain on her self-chosen task and did not initiate conversation with her peers. The exception to this being conflict situations, where Child A was extremely vocal in expressing her unhappiness to another child. When surrounded by other children, Child A still did not join in with their chatter. During free-play Child A would occasionally respond to a direct question from an adult observer, but at other times would attempt to ignore them. Occasionally Child A would address a direct comment to an adult observer, in relation to her self-generated task, but did not then become engaged in conversation. Play-times seemed to present a different view of Child A, in terms of her speaking and listening ability. She was observed on several occasions playing, with another girl from her class, a variety of different clapping and singing games. The two girls demonstrated different games to each other, and were evidently listening and responding to each other. ‘Pupils talk about matters of immediate interest. They listen to others  and usually respond appropriately. They convey simple meanings to  a range of listeners, speaking audibly, and begin to extend their ideas  or accounts by providing some detail.’ (www.nc.uk.net) This level descriptor indicates that, although Child A only meets part of the criteria for National Curriculum level 1, she is working at the lower end of this level. The observations made in the playground show that Child A is able, when the opportunity presents itself, to, ‘talk about matters of immediate interest,’ (www.nc.uk.net). Implications for Teaching and Learning: Speaking and Listening The evidence collected suggests that although Child A is confident when speaking to her peers at playtimes, she is not comfortable during class or group situations on and often prefers to remain silent. It is important to develop her ability to, ‘listen to others,’ and to, ‘respond appropriately,’ if Child A is to work towards National Curriculum level 2 for speaking and listening (www.nc.uk.net ). One of the key learning objectives for speaking and listening for children in Year One is, ‘to ask and answer questions, make relevant contributions, offer suggestions and take turns,’ (DFES 2003a, 24). The document Speaking, Listening, Learning: working with children in Key Stages 1 and 2 (DFES 2003a), offers some good suggestions for teaching towards this learning objective, and recommends a great deal of paired work, and teacher modelling of how to ask and answer questions. If Child A was able to observe adults modelling paired work, or some of her peers engaged in discussion work, she may start to feel sufficiently confident enough to join in herself. An additional strategy to help Child A during paired work, might be to try her with a variety of different partners to see if she responds better to a certain child. ‘All areas of the curriculum offer distinct opportunities for developing children’s speaking and listening,’ (DFES 2003b, 11) and consequently it may be possible to engage Child B more fully in speaking and listening activities when linked to a subject she enjoys. The use of paired discussion, could be better suited to a science lesson, for example, rather than confining such discussions to English lessons. Writing Analysis Several conversations with Child A led to the conclusion that she does perceive herself as a good writer. She enjoys writing for a purpose, she explained that she regularly writes lists and stories at home, giving them to her parents to read. It is clear from examining the writing samples, that while Child A is confidently identifying the initial and final phonemes in words, and writing these down, she appears to be having more difficulty with medial phonemes, as many of these are missing from the words she has written down. For example in Appendix III, the writing clearly shows that Child A has attempted to write the word, ‘wonderful,’ however she has clearly identified the sounds at the beginning and ends of the word, but the middle sounds have not been clearly audible to her, resulting in the word, ‘wunful.’ The three samples of Child A’s writing which were examined (see Appendices I, II and III), indicate that she is making phonetically plausible attempts at words as the writing can be clearly read without the aid of the child in most places. Child A does show an awareness of how to use full stops, although these are not consistently in the correct places. She does not yet seem aware that it is necessary to leave a clear space in between her words, and only does so in a couple of places. The evidence listed above, in conjunction with the writing samples contained within Appendices I, II, and III, indicate that Child A is working at National Curriculum level 1: ‘Pupils’ writing communicates meaning through simple words and  phrases. In their reading or their writing, pupils begin to show  awareness of how full stops are used. Letters are usually clearly  shaped and correctly oriented. (www.nc.uk.net ) It is clear from the above level descriptor, that although Child A is working at National Curriculum level 1, she does not meet all of the listed criteria and, therefore, should not be assessed for level 2. Implications for Teaching and Learning: Writing The evidence given supports the suggestion that Child A is progressing through National Curriculum level 1 and into level 2. There are several things that could be done to support this transition. It could be said that her main development point is to improve her spelling and to start to recognise medial sounds in words. Child A also needs to start leaving finger spaces in between words and to start using full stops correctly. The publication, Progression in Phonics: materials for whole class teaching, (DFES 1999) provides lots of suggestions for improving Child A’s ability to hear medial sounds. For example, the game, ‘Croaker,’ develops the children’s ability to hear and identify phonemes in a specified part of the word, using a puppet, (DFES 1999, 26). Such a game could improve Child A’s ability to hear and identify medial phonemes with the aim of improving her spelling. Reid suggests that shared and modelled writing are effective ways of supporting young children’s writing development, (Reid in Bentley and Burman et al. 1999, 103-104). This could be a good way of improving Child A’s use of finger spaces and full stops. If the teacher models the correct use of full stops and finger spaces, and also makes lots of deliberate mistakes which the children can help to correct, Child A will begin to understand how to use full stops and finger spaces effectively in her own writing. Conclusion In conclusion, the evidence presented above indicates that Child A is working at National Curriculum level 1 for her reading, writing and speaking and listening skills. It has already been suggested that effective teachers use what children already know as a basis for developing their language skills and facilitating their progression. The evidence collected has been carefully analysed with this aim in mind, and areas for the development of Child A’s literacy skills have been identified. Adult modelling of the reading and writing process should play a key part in this development, if Child A is to make good progress towards National Curriculum level 2. Peer modelling could also play an important role, and could also help to foster Child A’s self confidence. It is important that all these suggestions are linked to other areas of the curriculum in order to engage and interest Child A, although this should also be of paramount importance when teaching all children. If all these suggestions are put into action, Child A should start to make sound progress and will, in addition, be playing an important part in this progression herself. Bibliography Browne, Ann (1996) Developing Language and Literacy 3-8. London: Paul Chapman Publishing Limited. DFES (1999) Progression In Phonics: Materials for Whole-Class Teaching (The National Literacy Strategy) London: Department for Education and Employment DFES (2003a) Speaking, Listening, Learning: working with children in Key Stages 1 and 2: Teaching objectives and classroom activities. London: Department for Education and Employment DFES (2003b) Speaking, Listening, Learning: working with children in Key Stages 1 and 2: Handbook. London: Department for Education and Employment Graham, Judith and Kelly, Alison (1997) Reading Under Control: Teaching Reading in the Primary School. London: David Fulton Publishers Ltd. Moon, Cliff and Bourne, Jill (1994) The Open University Resource Pack: Learning to Teach Reading. Milton Keynes: The Open University. Reid, Dee Writing at Key Stage 1 in Bentley, Diana, Burman, Christine, Chamberlin, Rosemary et al. The Really Practical Guide to Primary English ( 1999) London: Stanley Thorne Publishers Ltd. www.nc.uk.net

Legalize It

Legalize It In 2000, George Bierson’s â€Å"Marijuana, the Deceptive Drug†, was published by the Massachusetts News. Bierson concludes that marijuana is harmful in many ways, including brain damage, damage to the reproductive system, and weakening of the immune system. He also attempts to convince the reader that marijuana is a â€Å"gateway drug† that leads the users to venture into much harder drugs. I believe that research to support anything can be found if one is looking hard enough, but that the fallacy of Bierson’s conclusion is due to his research seeking facts to support an already-assumed conclusion.Based on my research and my own personal experience, I have found that several of his points, when looked at logically, do not reach his conclusion. One of Bierson’s strongest supporting claims is of the physical harms of marijuana. He argues that Heath's tests of the monkey's brain seemed to show conclusive evidence of brain damage; however, h e fails to mention that the tests were later discredited: the monkeys were given extremely high doses, doses exponentially higher than that of the average recreational or medical marijuana user, and the test’s sample size was too small.More current studies of people who are heavy marijuana smokers show no evidence of brain damage; in addition, the American Medical Association has officially endorsed the decriminalization of marijuana. I find this to be quite a bit more compelling than an outdated and poorly executed test. His claims of damage to both the reproductive system and the immune system are again based on invalid experiments of doses administered to mice and other animals, not humans.Moreover, several studies of the effects of marijuana on the human reproductive and immune systems have failed to demonstrate adverse effects. One of the longest standing arguments against the use of marijuana is that it gives users a â€Å"gateway† to harder or more illicit drug use. Bierson states in his article that â€Å"Marijuana is the seed from which the scourge of drug abuse grows. If we stop the marijuana, we will stop the rest of drug abuse†. I have several issues with this statement: first, the simple fact that many heroin and cocaine users used marijuana first does ot conclude that the latter is the result of the first. Bierson’s vehement argument against marijuana alone become suspect, as most of these heroin and cocaine abusers had also previously used alcohol and tobacco. According to government surveys, a conservative estimate of 80 million American have tried marijuana in their life, and 20 million admit to using it recently; if marijuana were truly a gateway drug, we would see a higher percentage of regular users.Instead we are seeing an even smaller percentage of abusers of cocaine or heroin. In fact, most people who use marijuana most often quit on their own before the age of 34. In Holland, marijuana has been partially decr iminalized since the 1970's. Reports show that the use of cocaine and heroin has significantly decreased, thus contradicting the hypothesis of marijuana as a gateway drug. Instead, these statistics appear to point to the conclusion that marijuana is more likely a substitute for harder drugs rather than a launching pad.While I do feel that Bierson has failed to present conclusive evidence of the harmfulness of marijuana through the points made, it is not a proper statement to claim that marijuana is â€Å"harmless† either. Even though the properties of marijuana have shown not to be physically addictive, one can become psychologically addicted. However, this is true of just about anything that can give one pleasure, such as chocolate, gambling, or shopping. No substance will be safe for everybody, under all circumstances, or when used in excessive amounts.For example, over-the-counter medications can be deadly for those who are allergic or who overdose. On the other hand, mari juana overdose has never been a sole reported cause of death: the amount of cannabinoids required to have a lethal effect are more than 40,000 times the necessary dosage for intoxication, making it highly unlikely that a person would be able to or could be able to achieve such a concentrated amount in their bloodstream. This is a severe contrast to alcohol, where one can very easily bring about one's demise, and at only a mere four times the legal limit.Marijuana continues to be a relevant controversial issue in society today, as many states included decriminalization and legalization proposals on their ballots. It can be very difficult to know which side to support, partially due to the media propaganda, some of which even contradicts itself in its fervor. This is likely the result of many wealthy and influential organizations that have a financial interest in this issue, from the pharmaceutical companies who stand to lose profits from legalization, the governments who stands to ga in from taxation, or the â€Å"dealers† who will be put out of business with the elimination of the black market.It seems that those with a vested interest in the legalization or continued criminalization of marijuana will pull whatever strings necessary to sway public opinion to their side. This may include creating, supporting, or merely citing biased or invalid research to support the desired conclusion, just as Bierson has done in his article.